Information of different Websites for Authentication of the Name of Particular Plant Species

Many websites are used to confirm the plant's authentically identification, ensure its accepted binomial name, its synonym, and other necessary information you can get from these websites.

Generally, most of the students might not know about these websites. Therefore this article will be beneficial for them.

1.  The Plant List-  www.theplantlist.org

The Plant List is a working rundown of all known plant species. Version 1.1, delivered in September 2013, expects to be exhaustive for types of Vascular plants (flowering plants, conifers, ferns, and their allies) and of Bryophytes (musci and liverworts). It does exclude algae & fungi. Version 1.1 contains 1,293,685 botanical plant names, of which 350,699 are accepted species names.  It incorporates no vernacular or common plant names. 

The joint effort between the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and Missouri Botanical Garden empowered The Plant List's formation by consolidating numerous agenda datasets held by these establishments and different associates. 

The Plant List gives the Accepted Latin name to most species, with connections to all Synonyms by which that species has been known. It additionally incorporates Unresolved names for which the contributing information sources didn't contain adequate proof to choose whether they were Accepted or Synonyms, or where there were clashing suppositions that couldn't be promptly settled.

2.  World Flora Online- www.worldfloraonline.org

The World Flora Online (WFO) was launched in October 2012 as a follow-up project to The Plant List to publish all recognized plants' online flora by 2020.  It is a project of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity to halt plant species loss worldwide by 2020.  It is established by a collaborative group of institutions worldwide in response to the updated Goal 1 of the Global Plant Conservation Strategy (GSPC) 2011–2020: to create "an online flora of all recognized plants."

An accessible flora of all known plant species was considered essential for plant conservation. It provides a baseline for achieving and tracking other plan objectives. GSPC's previous goal was reached in 2010 with The Plant List.  The WFO was conceived by an initial group of four institutions in 2012; the Missouri Botanical Garden, the New York Botanical Garden, the Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, and the Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew 36 institutions are involved in the development.

3.  Royal Botanic Garden-Kew

      www.kew.org/science/collections-andresources/data-and-digital/names-and- taxonomy 

                Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom funded by the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. An internationally relevant botanical research and education institution, it employs 1,100 staff.  The Board of Trustees is headed by Dame Amelia Fawcett.

                 The organization manages the botanical gardens at Kew in Richmond on Thames in southwest London, and at Wakehurst, the National Trust in Sussex, home to the internationally important Millennium Seed Bank, whose scientists work with partner organizations in more than 95 countries.  Kew, together with the Forestry Commission, founded Bedgebury National Pinetum in Kent in 1923.

                     In 2018, the organization had 1,858,513 public visitors to Kew and 354,957 to Wakehurst.  The 326-acre (132 ha) site at Kew has 40 historic buildings; it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 3 July 2003.  The collections at Kew and Wakehurst include over 27,000 taxa of living plants, 8.3 million plant and fungal herbarium specimens, and over 40,000 species in the seed bank.

     

     It contains - 

  Biodiversity Information Standards (TDWG)  Historically known as the Taxonomic Databases Working Group, today's Biodiversity Information Standards (TDWG) is a non-profit, scientific and educational association formed to establish international collaboration between creators, managers, and users of biodiversity information and to promote broader and more effective dissemination and sharing of knowledge on the world heritage.

   

• To achieve its objectives, the TDWG:
• Develops, ratifies, and promotes standards and guidelines for the recording and exchange of data on organisms;
• acts as a forum for discussing all aspects of biodiversity information management through meetings, online discussions, and publications.

Index Fungorum     

• Index Fungorum is an international project to index all formal names (scientific names) in the fungus kingdom. As of 2015, the project is based at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, one of three partners along with Landcare Research and the Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
• It is somewhat comparable to the International Plant Name Index (IPNI), including the Royal Botanic Gardens. The difference is that if the IPNI does not indicate the correct name, the Index Fungorum indicates the name's status. The currently correct name in the search page returns is shown in green, while the others are shown in blue (a few aberrant names are indicated in red). All names are linked to pages with the correct name and synonym lists.
• 
  
• Index Fungorum is one of the three nomenclature repositories recognized by the Fungi Nomenclature Committee; the others are MycoBank and Fungal Names.
  
  
  
  
                      International Plant Names Index (IPNI) Welcome to the International Plant Name Index (IPNI) produced in collaboration with The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria, and The Australian National Herbarium, hosted by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. IPNI provides nomenclature information (spelling, authoring, types, and first place and date of publication) for Vascular Plants' scientific names from family to infra-specific ranks. In the search box above, you can search for plant names, authors, or publications. For advanced search options, click the down arrow. New records are added daily, and the IPNI team is continuously working to improve data standardization.
• IPNI provides links to protologists in online articles or page scans of the Biodiversity Heritage Library and links to taxonomic data (synonyms and native distribution) through Plants of the World Online.
• 

  
  
  
  
  

One of the Interesting Feature of the Kew Website is 

• Taxonomic Name Resolution Service- A tool for the computer-assisted standardization of plant-specific names. TNRS- Corrects spellings errors and alternative spellings to a standard list of names and converts out of date names (Synonyms) to the currently accepted name. 

4.  Angiosperm Phylogeny Group System (APG)

The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, or APG, is an informal international group of systematic botanists working together to build a consensus taxonomy of flowering plants (angiosperms) that reflects new knowledge of plant relations discovered through phylogenetic studies.

     It is from, 

• 1998-APG I
• 2003-APG II
• 2006-APG III
• 2016-APG IV

About Cladistics family arrangement about classification system.

5.  International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT)

The International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) promotes knowledge of plant biodiversity, encourages an international exchange of study between botanists, and oversees continuity and stability in plant names. The IAPT was established on 18 July 1950 at the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholm, Sweden. The IAPT is currently based in Bratislava, Slovakia. The current president since 2017 is Patrick S. Herendeen (Chicago Botanic Garden); the vice president is Gonzalo Nieto Feliner (Real Jardín Botánico, Madrid); and the general secretary is Karol Marhold (Plant Science and Biodiversity Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava).

Both the Taxonomic Journal and the Regnum Vegetabile series are published by the IAPT. This latter series contains the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants, Index Nominum Genericorum, and Index Herbariorum.

     

TAXON

TAXON is the leading international journal dedicated to the systematics, phylogeny, and taxonomy of algae, fungi, and plants. It also publishes papers on methodology, botanical history, biography, bibliography and related topics, opinion articles, comments, and new perspectives, and publishes various daily columns, including Plant Systematics World. TAXON is the only place to publish proposals to change the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants (except Chapter F-Fungi) Nomenclature proposals.

Different Aspects of Botany-The Plant Science

                   

                    Botany is also called Plant Science, Phytology, is the study of vegetation and a part of science.  A botanist, plant researcher or Phytologist is a researcher who spends significant time in this field.  The expression "herbal science" originates from the Old Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) signifying "field", "grass", or "grain"; βοτάνη is thusly gotten from βόσκειν (boskein), "to take care of" or "to graze".  

                     Customarily, organic science has likewise incorporated the investigation of growths and green growth by mycologists and phycologists separately, with the investigation of these three gatherings of living beings staying inside the circle of enthusiasm of the International Botanical Congress.  These days, botanists (in the exacting sense) concentrate roughly 410,000 types of land plants of which around 391,000 species are vascular plants (counting around 369,000 types of blooming plants), and roughly 20,000 are Bryophytes.

                    

                 

   The ancient Greek scholar Theophrastus, who lived during the 4th Century B.C., was one of the most famous early botanists. He wrote two major sets of books on plants, and his writings made him known as the “Father of Botany”. One set of books was called Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum), and it classified plants into different categories like geographic ranges, sizes, ways of growing, and uses.  It covered all aspects of plants, such as anatomy, reproduction and best methods of growing, and included separate books for trees, herbs, shrubs, and plants that produced food and useful resins or juices.  The other set of books was called On the Causes of Plants.

 

                     It was an in-depth guide on the best ways to grow plants, and also went into detail about the physical properties of plants, including their tastes and smells.  On the Causes of Plants was more about the economics of growing plants rather than their medicinal uses.  Theophrastus was apparently the first to discover the process of germination in plants, and he realized how important factors such as climate and soil type were to the proper growing of plants.

 

                              The application of plant science for purposes of civil or criminal law. Forensic botany has opened aspects of the field of botany to novel avenues within criminal investigations. Today, several sub-disciplines of plant science are being applied successfully in criminal investigations—for example, plant systematics including identification of plant species, plant anatomy, and plant ecology.  Often, forensic applications come from combinations of these areas in a given case.

                 Our earliest human ancestors found plants to heal wounds, cure diseases, and ease troubled minds.  People on all continents have long used hundreds, if not thousands, of indigenous plants, for treatment of various ailments dating back to prehistory. Knowledge about the healing properties or poisonous effects of plants, mineral salts, and herbs accumulated from these earliest times to provide health and predates all other medical treatment.

 

                          The study of applied plant sciences encompasses breeding, agricultural uses, natural resource management, food science, plant pathologist and biotechnology.  All humans rely on plants, which provide us with food, housing materials, fiber for clothing and more, and the study of applied plant sciences is an ever-evolving field that involves our efforts to enhance and protect our plant resources.

 

                 Plant pathology is the scientific study of various diseases in plants.  This topic can be of great interest to those who opt for botany as their basic field of specialization.  A research project on this topic could look one or more plant diseases and the causes behind the diseases, or it could focus more generally on the system of natural disease resistance in plants.  It could also investigate ways to prevent, manage and cure plant diseases.

Environmental botany includes the study of plants distribution, their adaptive strategies, the use of resources, the interrelationships with the environment. In particular, it concerns wild plants as well as plants used in agriculture, forestry or with other ethnological interest.

 

                 

Mycology, the term made from the two words, mykes-mushroom & logous- study.  The study of fungal taxonomy, fungal characteristics, industrial applications, etc. Mycologists can identify fungal diseases of plants and having the knowledge of their biological control as well as chemical control.  Therefore, there is a necessary of knowledgeable mycologists for the remedy of different fungal diseases of medicinal herbs, commercial seeds, storage plant products, post-harvest diseases etc.

 

                 Plant Biotechnology, includes reproducing to improve plants for different explanation, for example, expanding yield and quality, warmth and dry spell opposition, protection from phytopathogens, herbicide and creepy crawly obstruction, expanding biomass for biofuel creation, and upgrading the healthful nature of the harvests.  Plant rearing and biotechnology can be utilized to improve energy harvests to expand yield, improve resistance to bugs and dry spell, to change the qualities of the plants (for example level of lignin, oil content, cell structure) making it more productive to change over them to fluid biofuels.  There are many jobs available for Plant Biotechnologists in many industries such as,  

v Pharmaceutical and chemical companies.

v Biotechnology and genetic engineering companies.

v Research institutions.

v Agricultural and crop production companies.

v Food and drink manufacturers.

 

 

              Plant Breeding, is art & science to increase crop production which will be resistant to diseases so as to make wanted genotypes and aggregates for explicit purposes.  This control includes either controlled fertilization, hereditary designing, or both, trailed by fake determination of offspring.

Medicinal Plants Farming Affects Many Fungal Diseases

 

     Medicinal plants are considered as rich resources of ingredients which can be used in drug development.  Apart from medicinal uses, they are also used in natural dye, pest control, food, perfumes, and tea and so on. It also reduces such as diarrhea, constipation, hypertension, low sperm count, dysentery, piles, coated tongue, menstrual disorders, bronchial asthma etc. Most of the medicinal plants get diseased because of this, there is an economic loss caused as well as it also affects the diversity of rare, endangered, endemic, native, vulnerable plant species.

 

            Medicinal plants have long played important roles in the treatment of diseases all over the world. Medicinal plants are a source for a wide variety of natural antioxidants and are used for the treatment of diseases throughout the world. Some of these properties are antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiantherosclerosis, immunomodulatory and even renoprotection or hepatoprotective effects. 

 

Most of the medicinal plants have specific compounds other than antioxidants, which are effective in the treatment or prevention of diseases. In this regard medicinal plants have also been a reliable source of preparation of new drugs.  The herbal products today symbolize safety in contrast to the synthetics that are regarded as unsafe to human and environment. There are 2, 50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are medicinal. India is one of the word’s 12 biodiversity centres with the presence of over 45,000 different plant species.   In India, drugs of herbal origin have been used in traditional systems of medicines such as Unani and Ayurveda, since ancient times.  The drugs are derived either from the whole plant or from different organs, like leaves, stem, bark, root, flower, seed etc.   Some drugs are prepared from excretory plant products such as gum, resin, and latex.  Even the Allopathic system of medicine has adopted a number of plant derived drugs. Some important chemical intermediates needed for manufacturing the modern drugs are also obtained from plants.

 

                         India is floristically rich and ranking 10^th among the plant resources rich nations of the world and 4th among the countries of Asia. India is the 7th largest country in the world and Asia’s 2nd largest nation with an area of 3,287,263 Sq.Km. and is an example of diverse ecosystems.  Damping-off disease is caused by a soil-borne fungus Rhizoctonia solani that attacks germinated seedlings that have not yet emerged or have just emerged.  Damping-off of seedling is very common all over the world.  It occurs in agriculture and forest soils, in tropical and temperate climates and in almost every greenhouse or nursery.  Damping-off can be of two types, that is, pre-emergence damping-off in which the seeds and radical rot before the seedlings emerge from the soil and the post -emergence damping-off  in which the newly emerged seedlings are killed at ground level after they emerge from the soil, causing them to collapse.  This is a common symptom of post- emergence damping-off.

 

 Medicinal plants are also suffered fungal diseases like any other food and fodder crops but are not given that much of importance likes other commercially important crops.  Medicinal plants also causes diseases such as damping-off seedling, seedling blight, root rot, stem rot, leaf spot diseases etc.  There are various types of fungal diseases of herbal medicinal plants viz. Phytophthora stem blight and root rot. Aerial stem blight and root rot are caused by Phytophthora nicotianae and occasionally other species.  Pythium root rot, this pathogen doesn’t cause branch blight, only root rot and damping-off of seedlings.  Rhizoctonia stem and root rot, Rhizoctonia species sometimes causes stem rot turn yellow, wilt and collapse.  Affected plants are stunted; their roots have brown lesions, leaves turns yellow and plants wilt even when soil moisture is sufficient.  Gray-mold Botrytis Blight, this disease caused by Botrytis cineria is seen occasionally during cool, moist spring weather.  The pathogen usually builds-up on dead plant parts and disease develops when these come into contact with living tissue.  Symptoms progress rapidly and can include leaf spots and blights, stem cankers, stem rots and damping-off of seedlings.  Black root rot, is caused by the fungus Thielaviopsis basicola.  The major root problems in Asparagus include Fusarium crown and root rot and Phytophthora rot.  Damping-off disease is caused by soil-borne fungus Rhizoctonia solani that attacks germinated seedlings that have not yet emerged or have just emerged.  Fennel crop suffer from many diseases causing by fungi pathogens, such as Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium aphanidermatum, Cercospora sp., Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Alternaria alternate and Fusarium oxysporum.

There are various medicinal plants occurred such as Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle marmelos, Areca catechu, Azadirachta indica, Asparagus racemosus, Withania somnifera, Bidens pilosa, Butea monosperma, Calotropis gigantea, Canna indica, Cassia tora, Cleom viscosa, Emblica officinalis, Saraca asoca, Phyllanthous amarus(Bhumi Amla), Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Swirtia chiraita(Chiraita), Gymnema sylvestre (Gudmar), Commiphora wightii (Guggul), Tinospora cordifolia(Gulvel), Gloriosa superb(Calihari), Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh, Bhui neem), Solanum nigrum (Makoi), Rauvolfia serpentina ( Sarpagandha), Casia augstifolia (Senna), Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi), Mentha piperita(Peppermint) Lawsonia innermis ( Henna, Mehndi), Aloe vera(Korphad), Catharanthus roseus (Periwinkle,Sadafuli), Plumbago zeylanica (Swet Chitrak), Strychinos nuxvomica (Kochila), Terminalia chebula (Hirda), Terminalia bellerica (Behda), Tribulus terrestris (Gokhru), Macuna pruriens ( Khajkuhili) etc.

 

Most of the medicinal plants dies because of disease attack.  There are many reasons to cause diseases viz- air-borne fungi, weather change, soil-borne fungi etc. Very few information is available about the incidence, prevalence, epidemiology, and management of medicinal plants diseases.  There is little information or research work is available on diseases of medicinal plants.   The amount of damage the disease causes to plant is depends on the fungus, host tolerance/susceptibility, soil moisture and temperature.  Seedlings may die before or after they emerge from the soil (pre-emergence and post-emergence damping-off respectively).  Seedlings in seedbeds often are completely destroyed by damping-off or they die after transplanting.  Hence, try to investigate ecofriendly management practices hence it will reduces the hazardous effects causes by the environmentally harmful management practices.  In that uses of Biorational pesticides; these pesticides are defined as products that are considered to be environmentally friendly because they have minimal harmful effects on non-target organisms and the environment; they are frequently more “user friendly” than traditional pesticides (Biochemicals which include plant products such as essential oils and various compounds synthesized by other organisms such as chitin and chitosan).  Indeed, these biopesticides present many advantages in term of sustainability, mode of action and toxicity compared to chemical pesticides.  By using antagonism or biological pesticides it is also called as antibiosis-these pesticides are living agents that are also called biological control agents.  For example, by using certain bacteria, fungi it can be controlled ecofriendly.  But including these things there are certain drawbacks of biocontroling agent, is that, they are having certain limitations means they resist the growth of pathogen at the certain level while biocontroling agents are affected by environmental changes but on the other hand chemical fungicides does not affected by environmental changes hence, try to uses of chemical fungicides that causes minimal effect on host and its residual affects does not persist for long period.  Majority of herbal medicinal plants dies due to disease attack and it losses generally on the nursery bed whenever economic losses takes place because the whole plant get destroyed .  Hence, to overcome this problem after transplantations and avoid the economic losses. 

 

Possibilities of Seedling Diseases of Medicinal Plants on the Brahmagiri Hill- A Mountain Range in the Western Ghats, Nashik District, Maharashtra

 

Brahmagiri is a mountain range in the Western Ghats.  It is situated in Nashik district in the Indian state of Maharashtra.  Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple is located near this place. Brahmagiri, the hill (Giri) of Lord Brahma appears in many mythological and legendary documents. The first peak of Sahyadri is called Brahmadri.  The story associated with this is that Shankar was pleased with Brahmadev and said, "Your the name shall know me." Hence it is called Brahmagiri.  The mountain is 1800 ft high.  Its height from sea level is 4248 ft.  Five peaks of this mountain are called Sadyo-Jata, Vamdev, and Aghora. Ishana and Tat-Purusha and are considered as five mouths of Lord Shiva, and they are worshipped.  Its coordinates are 19⁰56^'N 73⁰32^'E.    Legend says that the saint Gautam and his wife Ahalya resided on this hill. Saint Gautam worshiped Lord Shiva to bring Ganga to this hill. This river is known as River Gautami in the Brahmagiri hills. Brahmagiri (1298 meters) is to the west of Trimbakeshwar, and this fort offers a commanding view of the Jawhar Mokhada region of Thane district. Trimbakeshwar itself is a place of worship because it is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva.

The term "medicinal plant" includes various types of plants used in herbalism ("herbology" or "herbal medicine").  The word "herb" has been derived from the Latin word "herba" and an old French word "herbe." Now a day's herb refers to any part of the plant like fruit, seed, stem, bark, flower, leaf, stigma or root, and the non-woody plant.  Earlier, the term "herb" was only applied to non-woody plants, including those that come from trees and shrubs.  These medicinal plants are also used as food, flavonoid, medicine or perfumes, and some spiritual activities.

 Medicinal plants are having various uses, such as an anticancer drug. Medicinal plants are considered as rich resources of ingredients that can be used in drug development.  Apart from medicinal uses, herbs are also used in natural dye, pest control, food, perfumes, tea, etc. It also reduces diarrhea, constipation, hypertension, low sperm count, dysentery, piles, coated tongue, menstrual disorders, bronchial asthma, etc. Most medicinal plants have diseased in their seedling stage; hence, there is an economic loss caused. It also affects the diversity of rare, endangered, endemic, native, vulnerable plant species. Because of disease attacks, the whole plant gets destroyed suddenly.

 The meaning of seedling is that "a plant or tree grew from a seed, not yet 1 meter high".  Another meaning is a "seedling is a young plant that has been grown from a seed." So medicinal herbs infected by various diseases at their seedling stages. There is essential information on crop plants. Nevertheless, such information is very insignificant in medicinal plants under cultivation and naturally growing (Hanna Blum et al. 2006). Medicinal herbs have long played important roles in the treatment of diseases all over the world. Medicinal plants are a source of a wide variety of natural antioxidants and are used to treat diseases worldwide. Some of these properties are antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiatherosclerotic, immunomodulatory, and even renoprotective effects.  Most medicinal plants have specific compounds other than antioxidants, which are useful in treating or preventing diseases. In this regard, medicinal plants have also been a reliable source of new drugs (Mahmoud Rafieian-Kopaei, 2012). Today's herbal products symbolize safety in contrast to the synthetics that are regarded as unsafe to humans and the environment. There are 2, 50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are medicinal. India is one of the word's 12 biodiversity centers with over 45,000 different plant species.  In India, herbal origin drugs have been used in traditional systems of medicines such as Unani and Ayurveda since ancient times. The drugs are derived from the whole plant or different organs, like leaves, stem, bark, root, flower, seed etc.  Some drugs are prepared from excretory plant products such as gum, resin, and latex. Even the Allopathic system of medicine has adopted several plant-derived drugs. Some essential chemical intermediates needed for manufacturing modern drugs are also obtained from plants.

 India is floristically rich and ranking 10^th   among the world's plant resources-rich nations and 4^th among Asia's countries. India is the 7^th largest country globally and Asia's 2^nd largest nation with an area of 3,287,263 Sq.Km. and is an example of diverse ecosystems (Swingland, 2001).  The damping-off disease is caused by a soil-borne fungus Rhizoctonia solani that attacks germinated seedlings that have not yet emerged or have just emerged (Goner A. Shaker, 2016).  Damping-off of seedling is very common all over the world.  It occurs in agriculture and forest soils, tropical and temperate climates, and almost every greenhouse or nursery.  Damping-off can be of two types: pre-emergence damping-off. The seeds and radical rot before the seedlings emerge from the soil and the post-emergence damping-off in which the newly emerged seedlings are killed at ground level after they emerge from the soil, causing them to collapse.  This is a common symptom of post-emergence damping-off.

There are various medicinal plants occurred in the Western Ghats such as Acalypha ciliate, Acalypha indica, Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle marmelos, Areca catechu, Azadirachta indica, Asparagus racemosus, Withania somnifera, Bidens pilosa, Butea monosperma, Calotropis gigantea, Canna indica, Cassia tora, Cleom viscosa, Emblica officinalis, Saraca asoca, Phyllanthous amarus(Bhumi Amla), Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Swirtia chiraita(Chiraita), Gymnema sylvestre (Gudmar), Commiphora wightii (Guggul), Tinospora cordifolia(Gulvel), Gloriosa superb(Calihari), Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh, Bhui neem), Solanum nigrum (Makoi), Rauvolfia serpentina ( Sarpagandha), Casia augstifolia (Senna), Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi), Mentha piperita(Peppermint) Lawsonia innermis ( Henna, Mehndi), Aloe vera(Korphad), Catharanthus roseus (Periwinkle, Sadafuli), Plumbago zeylanica (Swet Chitrak), Strychinos nuxvomica (Kochila), Terminalia chebula (Hirda), Terminalia bellerica (Behda), Tribulus terrestris (Gokhru), Macuna pruriens ( Khajkuhili) etc.

 Such a wide range of medicinal plants found on the Western Ghats, Brahmagiri hills, is a mountain range in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State.  Hence found a large amount of wild herbal medicinal plants.  Medicinal plants are also suffered fungal diseases at their seedling stages like any other food and fodder crops. However, herbal medicinal plant diseases are not given that much importance, like other commercially important crops.  Herbal plants also cause damping-off seedling, seedling blight, root rot, stem rot, leaf spot diseases, etc.  There are various types of fungal diseases of herbal medicinal plants viz. Phytophthora stem blight and root rot. Aerial stem blight and root rot are caused by Phytophthora nicotianae and occasionally other species.  Pythium root rot, this pathogen does not cause branch blight, only root rot, and damping-off of seedlings.  Rhizoctonia stem and root rot, Rhizoctonia species sometimes causes stem rot to turn yellow, wilt, and collapse.  Affected plants are stunted; their roots have brown lesions, leaves turn yellow, and plant wilt even when soil moisture is sufficient.

Gray-mold Botrytis Blight, this disease caused by Botrytis cineria is seen occasionally during cold, moist spring weather.  The pathogen usually builds-up on dead plant parts, and disease develops when these come into contact with living tissue.  Symptoms progress rapidly and include leaf spots and blights, stem cankers, stem rots, and damping-off seedlings.  Black root rot is caused by the fungus Thielaviopsis basicola.  The primary root problems in Asparagus include Fusarium crown and root rot and Phytophthora rot (Wade H. Elmer). The damping-off disease is caused by soil-borne fungus Rhizoctonia solani that attacks germinated seedlings that have not yet emerged or have just emerged.  Fennel crops suffer from many diseases causing by fungi pathogens, such as Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium aphanidermatum, Cercospora sp., Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Alternaria alternate, and Fusarium oxysporum (Khare et al. 2014). 

Most of the herbal medicinal plants die at their seedling stage.  There are many reasons to cause diseases at their seedling stage viz- air-borne fungi, weather change, soil-borne fungi, etc. Very few information is available about the incidence, prevalence, epidemiology, and management of herbal medicinal plants' seedling diseases.  There is little information, or research work is available on seedling diseases of herbal medicinal plants.  The amount of damage the disease causes to seedlings depends on the fungus, host tolerance/susceptibility, soil moisture, and temperature.  Seedlings may die before or after they emerge from the soil (pre-emergence and post-emergence damping-off, respectively).  Seedlings in seedbeds often are destroyed by damping-off, or they die after transplanting.  Hence, try to investigate eco-friendly management practices; hence it will reduce the hazardous effects caused by environmentally harmful management practices.  In that uses of Biorational pesticides; these pesticides are defined as products that are considered to be environmentally friendly because they have minimal harmful effects on non-target organisms and the environment; they are frequently more "user friendly" than traditional pesticides (Biochemicals which include plant products such as essential oils and various compounds synthesized by other organisms such as chitin and chitosan).  Indeed, these biopesticides present many advantages in terms of sustainability, mode of action, and toxicity compared to chemical pesticides.  By using antagonism or biological pesticides, it is also called antibiosis-these pesticides are living agents called biological control agents.  For example, by using certain bacteria, fungi can be controlled ecofriendly.

Nevertheless, including these things, certain drawbacks of the biocontrol agent are that they have certain limitations, which means they resist pathogens' growth at a certain level. In contrast, biocontrol agents are affected by environmental changes. However, on the other hand, chemical fungicides do not affect environmental changes; hence, they try to use chemical fungicides that cause a minimal effect on the host. Its residual effects do not persist for an extended period.  By thoroughly investigations of seedlings diseases of herbal medicinal plants uses of wild varieties of medicinal plants seeds would be done for that seeds will be collected from Brahmagiri hills, Western Ghats region because to know the reason behind seedling diseases which infection generally come from soil(pre-emergence or post-emergence of seedlings).  Due to this, most herbal medicinal plants die at their seedling stages. It losses generally on the nursery bed whenever economic losses take place because the whole plant gets destroyed.  Hence, to overcome this problem (seedling diseases) after transplantations and avoid economic losses. 

  It can save the loss of biodiversity and the conservation of herbal medicinal plants.  Because many medicinal herbs are affected by seedling diseases such as Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, etc., it creates more significant amounts of biodiversity loss. 

Role of Artificial Intelligence in Research Methodology

Role of Artificial Intelligence in Research Methodology 

                Artificial Intelligence (AI) is also called as Machine Learning.  It is a type of intelligence showed or performed by the machine.  On the other hand, natural intelligence is performed by human beings and animals. AI is the branch of computer science that develops intelligent machines that will work and think like humans.

                  In our daily life, we are using many types of artificial intelligence as a computer, mobiles, Alexa- is a virtual assistant AI technology developed by Amazon, different social media platforms, Plagiarism checkers, Siri, Google Assistant, Apple, Add Health, Podcast, Netflix, etc. 

          In the research field, there is also much artificial intelligence technology such as Turnitin Plagiarism Checker, Grammarly, Paraphrasing tools like Quillbot, Scholarcy, Ref and Write, ProWritingAid, various reference managers like Mendeley, Zotero, EndNote, Docear, Statistical Softwares like R Software, IBM SPSS. SPSS Amos, Stata, Matlab, Python, Minitab, etc. 

      

1. Plagiarism Checker Softwares - There are many free and paid plagiarism check software is available. However, free software is not so trustworthy to that extent. Turnitin, iThenticate, Urkund, and Plagiarism Checker are some excellent examples of plagiarism check software. Among them, iThenticate and Turnitin are so strong that they will catch all similarity index available online. 

2. For Proof Reading and Grammar 

For proofreading and grammar and sentence tense, synonyms, writing suggestions, and for many more ProWritingAid and after that, Grammarly is an excellent software they have add-in features to ms-word, google docs, email, desktop set up also available.  The thing is that ProWritingAid is costly than the Grammarly but having more features than the Grammarly as well. 

3. Paraphrasing Softwares - In research, writing paraphrasing is one of the most essential tasks. You have to paraphrase or rewrite the author's view in your own wording without changing the original meaning of the sentence. There are many free as well as paid paraphraser, and summarises are available. For example, QuillBot, it is the most popular paraphrasing software having many types of options such as concision, fluency, suggestions, creative with word flipper. It summarises with critical words and paragraphs also. 

   There is one more research paper summarise is available known as Scholarcy, it is online web software which makes a summary of research papers and makes it easy to read by providing highlights and convert the research papers into short fragments hence one's no need to read the research paper thoroughly it will be understandable by reading it once glance. 

   Apart from this, there is 'Article Spinner' is also available. 

     Another interesting paraphrasing tool is Ref and Write, there are at about 20,000-word phrases are available which gives you an idea of how to initiate the sentences from introduction to the results and description, conclusion part, another feature is word choice, self-plagiarism checking, and many more features. 

      In free paraphrasing software, there are Spinbot, Paraphrasing.com. These are some free paraphrasing Softwares. 

4. Reference Manager- The other most essential and essential software is the reference manager. 

Among them, Mendeley is free and easy to understand, after that, Zotero is also free but a little tricky than Mendeley. Docear is also a free reference manager. 

      EndNote is a type of paid software reference manager having advanced features than other free software. 

Reference managers help incorrect citation of the related research article and its references according to the desired referencing styles. 

      One can change 100s of referencing style by a single click. It keeps all your research papers permanently for future reference. You can make the changes manually in it also. 

          You can search by using the search option available in the reference manager or Google Scholar, Pubmed, etc. One can add a research article directly into the desired folder using the Web importer option of the respective reference manager. You can make different folders for your convenience and can add files, folders from your computer also. 

5. Statistical Softwares - For research data analysis, there is a requirement of statistical software in that IBM SPSS is quite popular and easy to use. 

After that, R Statistical software is also widely used, and open-source statistical software available free of cost.

Including these, many other software such as STATA, Python, Minitab, etc. are available.